Religious Ethical Teachings

ETHICAL TEACHINGS IN HINDUISM

Hinduism, major world religion originating on the Indian subcontinent and comprising several and varied systems of philosophy, belief, and ritual. Although the name Hinduism is relatively new, having been coined by British writers in the first decades of the 19th century, it refers to a rich cumulative tradition of texts and practices, some of which date to the 2nd millennium BCE or possibly earlier. If the Indus valley civilization (3rd–2nd millennium BCE) was the earliest source of these traditions, as some scholars hold, then Hinduism is the oldest living religion on Earth. Its many sacred texts in Sanskrit and vernacular languages served as a vehicle for spreading the religion to other parts of the world, though ritual and the visual and performing arts also played a significant role in its transmission. From about the 4th century CE, Hinduism had a dominant presence in Southeast Asia, one that would last for more than 1,000 years.

In the early 21st century, Hinduism had nearly one billion adherents worldwide and was the religion of about 80 percent of India’s population. Despite its global presence, however, it is best understood through its many distinctive regional manifestations.

            More strikingly than any other major religious community, Hindus accept—and indeed celebrate—the organic, multileveled, and sometimes pluralistic nature of their traditions. This expansiveness is made possible by the widely shared Hindu view that truth or reality cannot be encapsulated in any creedal formulation, a perspective expressed in the Hindu prayer “May good thoughts come to us from all sides.” Thus, Hinduism maintains that truth must be sought in multiple sources, not dogmatically proclaimed.

Anyone’s view of the truth—even that of a guru regarded as possessing superior authority—is fundamentally conditioned by the specifics of time, age, gender, state of consciousness, social and geographic location, and stage of attainment. These multiple perspectives enhance a broad view of religious truth rather than diminish it; hence, there is a strong tendency for contemporary Hindus to affirm that tolerance is the foremost religious virtue. On the other hand, even cosmopolitan Hindus living in a global environment recognize and value the fact that their religion has developed in the specific context of the Indian subcontinent. Such a tension between universalist and particularist impulses has long animated the Hindu tradition. When Hindus speak of their religious identity as sanatana dharma, they emphasize its continuous, seemingly eternal (sanatana) existence and the fact that it describes a web of customs, obligations, traditions, and ideals (dharma) that far exceeds the Western tendency to think of religion primarily as a system of beliefs. A common way in which English-speaking Hindus often distance themselves from that frame of mind is to insist that Hinduism is not a religion but a way of life.

            Hindu ethics is mainly subjective or personal, its purpose being to eliminate such mental impurities as greed and egoism, for the ultimate attainment of the highest good. Why Hindu ethics stresses the subjective or personal value of action will be discussed later. Objective ethics, which deals with social welfare, has also been considered by Hindu thinkers. It is based upon the Hindu conception of Dharma, or duty, related to a man’s position in society and his stage in life. Objective ethics, according to the Hindu view, is a means to an end, its purpose being to help the members of society to rid themselves of self-centredness, cruelty, greed, and other vices, and thus to create an environment helpful to the pursuit of the highest good, which transcends society. Hinduism further speaks of certain universal ethical principles which apply to all human beings irrespective of their position in society or stage in life.

ETHICAL TEACHINGS IN BUDDHISM

Buddhism is a path of practice and spiritual development leading to Insight into the true nature of reality. Buddhist practices like meditation are means of changing yourself in order to develop the qualities of awareness, kindness, and wisdom. The experience developed within the Buddhist tradition over thousands of years has created an incomparable resource for all those who wish to follow a path — a path which ultimately culminates in Enlightenment or Buddhahood. An enlightened being sees the nature of reality absolutely clearly, just as it is, and lives fully and naturally in accordance with that vision. This is the goal of the Buddhist spiritual life, representing the end of suffering for anyone who attains it.

Because Buddhism does not include the idea of worshipping a creator god, some people do not see it as a religion in the normal, Western sense. The basic tenets of Buddhist teaching are straightforward and practical: nothing is fixed or permanent; actions have consequences; change is possible. So Buddhism addresses itself to all people irrespective of race, nationality, caste, sexuality, or gender. It teaches practical methods which enable people to realise and use its teachings in order to transform their experience, to be fully responsible for their lives.

ETHICAL TEACHINGS IN CONFUCIANISM

A moral and ethical system aimed at human development, Confucianism is a widely influential philosophical system, constituting a formative cultural influence in many nations on the Pacific rim including China, Taiwan, Singapore, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, and to a lesser extent Malaysia and the Philippines. It's a key social force in China.

History

Confucianism has become a prominent cultural force both in East Asia and around the world. The core of the system is the teachings of Confucius, a Chinese philosopher and scholar who lived in 5th century B.C.. At its core, it is a series of codified beliefs and behaviors designed to produce people of superior intellectual and moral character, who will in turn enrich society as a whole through their service and their understanding of the social order. In the centuries following Confucius's life, China's intellectual influence in the Asian Pacific spread Confucian ideas across the region.

Confucian Virtues

Confucianism is a humanist belief, predicated on the notion that human nature can be improved or even perfected through a systematic approach to self-cultivation. That cultivation is in turn based on the cultivation of key virtues. The most important of these are ren, yi, and li.

Ren best translates as humanness or humanity. Nearly synonymous with the Chinese word for a human being, it describes the care and concern that allow a community to function and that in theory all people should show toward each other. Yi is the system of righteous behavior, the ethics and etiquette that shape conduct. Li is a series of social norms and proprietary behaviors that allows a community to function in harmony without either external or internal conflict.

Junzi

The Junzi (literally “the child of a lord”) is the Confucian ideal person. It is most often rendered into English as “gentleman.” The perfect scholar and sage, the Junzi embodies the perfection of human potential by cultivating himself morally, practicing altruism and benevolence toward other living things, and by being the perfect example of loyalty and piety. Most followers of Confucianism hold that Confucius was the greatest Junzi, due to his devotion to virtue and the consistent practice of his own ethics.

The Junzi is defined by its opposite. The Xiaoren, literally “small person” is everything that a Junzi is not: small-minded, petty, greedy, and materialistic. In the Confucian world view, life without virtue is both harmful to others and limiting to one’s own potential and development.

Social Structure

Confucianism places great emphasis on education, suggesting that learning should be available to all, regardless of social class, and that educational advancement should be based on merit. Rather than the social stratification that had dominated Chinese society, Confucius advocated that rulers and administrators should be chosen by merit, via a system of education and examination. This led to the creation of the Imperial examination system, which transformed Chinese society by replacing hereditary positions with a meritocracy. Its influence spread outside of China, inspiring similar systems in Korea, Vietnam, and Japan. It was, in part, the basis for the US Civil Service system, which features a similar exam.

ETHICAL TEACHINGS IN ISLAM

          The principal ethical teachings within Islam is to follow the will of Allah, the primary foundation to guide them in ethical ways is the Qur’an. The other books of Allah do not carry the same authority as the Qur’an; it is the initial source of Islamic teachings. Islam does not recognise any differences among people, a major ethical belief is to love Allah, maintaining suitable values and do not degrade the opposite sex or sexual relationships.

         The most important source of reference for Islamic jurisprudence is the Qur’an, this process involves knowledge and understanding known as “fiqh”. Fiqh stands for relating legal practices to the revelation of the Qur’an and traditions of the prophets. The process of application of principles through  analogy is called “qiyas”, which is used to determine appropriate responses to the complex issues of modern societies.

Morality in Islam addresses every aspect of a Muslim’s life, from greetings to international relations. It is universal in its scope and in its applicability. A Muslim is expected to not only be virtuous, but to also enjoin virtue. He/She must not only refrain from evil and vice, but must also actively engage in asking people to eschew them. In other words, they must not only be morally healthy, but must also contribute to the moral health of society as a whole.

The Prophet Mohammed (peace be upon him) summarized the conduct of a Muslim when he said: “My Sustainer has given me nine commands: to remain conscious of God, whether in private or in public; to speak justly, whether angry or pleased; to show moderation both when poor and when rich, to reunite friendship with those who have broken off with me; to give to him who refuses me; that my silence should be occupied with thought; that my looking should be an admonition; and that I should command what is right.”

EDUCATION IN CONFUCIAN ANALECTS

The Analects are a collection of the teachings and thoughts of Confucius; they also contain fragments of dialogues between the great Chinese philosopher and his disciples. The name in English derived from the word "analect" which means a fragment or extract of literature, or a collection of teachings. In Chinese, the book is literally called "discussion on the words [of Confucius]." The Analects are believed to have been collected by the disciples of Confucius and not by the sage himself.

Written during the Period of Spring and Autumn and Warring States Period (ca. 479 BC - 221 BC), the Analects are considered among the most representative works of Confucian thought, and still have a great influence on Chinese culture and East Asia.

The Analects were probably written over a period of 30-50 years. Started during the Spring and Autumn Period, the work of collection and organization of Confucian teachings was probably completed during the Warring States Period, although the precise date of publication of the complete work is unknown. In China, the work has been by many attributed to Confucius himself, but the philological investigations to date do not allow to go back to a reliable source, partly because of the devastating book burning of 213 BC by the First Emperor Qin Shi Huang.

The chapters are grouped by themes of the Analects, but do not develop a structured discussion. The sequence of chapters seems entirely random, dealing with topics that are in no way connected. Some central themes are repeated in various chapters, sometimes in the same wording and sometimes with slight variations. This has led some scholars to conclude that the book was not written by a single author, but is the collective work of several people. It is likely that the editors end of the Analects were probably the disciples of Confucius or of Zengzi, one of his most influential students.

At first there was no canonical version of the Analects. At the time of the Han Dynasty, there were three versions of the Analects: those of Lu, those of Qi, as well as the ancient texts of the Analects. The Qi and Lu versions were very similar, but the version included two additional chapters in addition to the twenty chapters three chapters common to the other versions. The ancient texts divided the one chapter into two parts, and the remainder of the chapters and text were ordered differently than the other two more recent versions.

Towards the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Zhang Yu, a tutor of Emperor Cheng, the combined versions of Qi and Lu Analects while keeping the number of chapters of the Lu version. The version of Zhang became known as the Marquis Zhang Analects, and is the version known today.

A later version of the Analects written on bamboo strips before 55 BC, was discovered in 1973 in Dingzhou (Dingxian) in Hebei Province, and was published in 1997. This version, although fragmentary, may help to shed new light on the textual tradition of critical dialogues in future editions.

From the time of Confucius, the Analects have strongly influenced the philosophy and ethical values of China and, later, other East Asian countries. A man who was unfamiliar with the Analects was considered uneducated and not morally upright. Together with other works that make up the Four Books, the Analects teach the main Confucian virtues: Decorum, Justice, Fairness, and Filial Piety.

For nearly two thousand years, the Analects were the foundation of Chinese education. The rigorous imperial examinations, which thousands of young men took each year in the hopes of gaining employment as functionaries in the imperial government, required a thorough knowledge of the Analects and the teachings of Confucius. The Analects did not cease to be the central part of Chinese education until the creation of the Chinese republic and the reforms of 1905-1908 which abolished the imperial examinations. After the Communist takeover, the Analects and Confucianism, fell into disfavour with the government, but its teachings are so ingrained in Chinese society that they continue to shape the morality and thought of millions of Chinese.